c) England

By the end of the 17th century, England had become the dominant European power in North America, surpassing its rivals through a combination of military might, strategic alliances, and effective colonization. The English approach to colonization, which included the establishment of permanent settlements such as Jamestown and Plymouth, was crucial to their success. These settlements not only facilitated trade but also served as strategic footholds. Additionally, England’s victory in various conflicts, most notably in the Anglo-Dutch Wars, significantly reduced Dutch influence in North America. The English crown’s policies, which encouraged migration and investment in the colonies, further bolstered their dominance. This period marked the beginning of a significant shift in power dynamics in North America, laying the groundwork for the future development of the United States.